Some of the earliest recorded observations of India’s natural history underscore the spiritual significance of species other than our own. These primal images and symbols suggest a mystical connection between humankind and the rest of nature. Ancient rituals of hunting, blessed by tribal shamans, sanctified both predator and prey.
In oral epics, ballads, and folklore, the medicinal and hallucinogenic properties of wild plants were often linked to supernatural or magical powers. For thousands of years, nature’s fecundity has been revered and worshipped in India, assuming the iconic forms of mother goddesses, sacred trees, serpent spirits, and other divine animals.
Tigers and elephants, being dominant creatures of the Indian jungle, were often chosen to represent attributes of strength and authority, linking them to omnipotent deities or rulers. Clay seals from the Indus Valley civilization, during the third millennium bce, depict what may be a god seated astride a tiger.
The Mahabharata contains a passage that is probably the earliest call for tiger conservation: ‘The forest has tigers and it should never be cut nor should the tigers be chased away from the forest. Not living in the forest is death to the tiger and in the absence of the tiger, the forest is annihilated. The tiger protects the forest and the forest nurtures the tiger.’
But more than these so-called ‘apex species’, a bestiary of lesser creatures captured our ancestral imagination. In an ocean of stories, turtles and fish were identified as avatars of benevolent water gods protecting the world from demonic destruction. On land, spiders were seen as emblems of creation, spinning an intricate web of existence that connected all forms of life.
Geckos were interpreted as symbols of good luck while bats were seen as harbingers of death, though in some parts of India they were believed to bear wealth and prosperity on their wings. Birds of all kinds have been classified according to reverential taxonomies that assign celestial virtues to vultures, parakeets, and cranes, as well as dozens of other genera.
Spectacled cobras are considered one of the most sacred animals in India, invoking awe and terror. They are an essential part of the iconography of deities like Shiva and Vishnu. Carved images of cobras adorn Hindu temples but also appear on simple stone tablets tucked into the roots of peepul and banyan trees. An abundance of botanical lore is found in Buddhist and Hindu literature. Tulsi (holy basil) is an aromatic herb venerated in many Indian households. Verses from the Vedas celebrate a mythical plant called soma that produces the ‘nectar of the Gods’, causing divine intoxication.
Today a variety of common species from marijuana to the flowering mahua tree elicit the same mind-bending response. Ayurvedic medicine synthesizes indigenous knowledge of plant-based therapies that are used to treat everything from gallstones to depression. Tribal communities in different parts of India maintain unique systems of classification for forest resources like wild grasses, tubers, seeds, bark, leaves, and flowers that are gathered for nourishment and healing. Fragrant herbs and resins produce incense and perfumes used in rituals of devotion.
This book chronicles a quest to uncover multiple layers of meaning associated with the wild flora and fauna of India’s woodlands, mountains, rivers, deserts, and coastline. It includes first-hand observations of rare and unusual forms of life as well as jungle lore. In the same way that biological specimens were gathered and catalogued by early naturalists, the stories of each species can be collected and compiled. Scientific research and discourse is a form of storytelling that provides an intriguing counterpoint to myths and legends.
Though the scope of this book spans the entire subcontinent of India, focusing on life forms as diverse as scorpions, mangroves, pheasants, fungi, and wild cattle, this is not an encyclopaedic project. Instead, it is an effort to weave together a coherent and compelling litany of proverbs, parables, and prayers that draw inspiration from the wild. At the core of these braided metaphors lies the moral imperative of conservation, voicing an urgent call to preserve the diversity of nature as well as the poetry, folk tales, and hymns that commemorate threatened biomes.
Wild creatures and wild places are part of our natural heritage, providing a link to the past but also an ecological perspective for the future. Through observation, reflection, and enquiry, we can learn to appreciate the life stories of other beings. As a species, Homo sapiens are inextricably connected to the larger, multifaceted narratives of evolutionary history—an ongoing epic of survival, coexistence, and change.
Curiosity and wonder, as well as the recognition of biological kinship, compel us to share the earth equitably with other life forms, whether they are dangerous or docile, fearful or indifferent to our presence. As we look at them, we must also know that they are looking at us. By meeting their gaze, we can begin to comprehend the conflicts and commonalities that bind us, so that we can fulfil our responsibility to preserve what little is left of the natural world.
This is an excerpt from the book 'The Cobra's Gaze: Exploring India's Wild Heritage' by Stephen Alter, published by Aleph Book Company.